Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela - Former President of South Africa

Date of birth: 18 July 1918, Mvezo, Transkei.Date of death: 5 December 2013, Houghton, Johannesburg, South Africa Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the small village of Mvezo, on the Mbashe River, district of Umtata in Transkei, South Africa. His Father named him Rolihlahla, which means pulling the branch of the tree, or more colloquially troublemaker. The name Nelson was not given until his first day at school. Nelson Mandelas father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was the chief by blood and custom of Mvezo, a position confirmed by the paramount chief of the Thembu, Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although the family is descended from Thembu royalty (one of Mandelas ancestors was paramount chief in the 18th century) the line had passed down to Mandela through lesser Houses, rather than through a line of potential succession. The clan name of Madiba, which is often used as a form of address for Mandela, comes from the ancestral chief. Until the advent of European domination in the region, chieftaincy of the Thembu (and other tribes of the Xhosa nation) was by patrimonial decent, with the first son of the major wife (known as the Great House) becoming automatic heir, and the first son of the second wife (the highest of the lessor wives, also known as the Right Hand House) being relegated to creating a minor chiefdom. The sons of the third wife (known as the Left Hand House) were destined to become advisors to the chief. Nelson Mandela was the son of the third wife, Noqaphi Nosekeni, and could have otherwise expected to become a royal advisor. He was one of thirteen children, and had three elder brothers all of whom were of higher rank. Mandelas mother was a Methodist, and Nelson followed in her footsteps, attending a Methodist missionary school. When Nelson Mandelas father died in 1930, the paramount chief, Jongintaba Dalindyebo, became his guardian. In 1934, a year during which he attended three month initiation school (during which he was circumcised), Mandela matriculated from Clarkebury Missionary school. Four years later he graduated from Healdtown, a strict Methodist college, and left to pursue higher education at the University of Fort Hare (South Africas first university college for Black Africans). It was here he first met his lifelong friend and associate Oliver Tambo. Both Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo were expelled from Fort Hare in 1940 for political activism. Briefly returning to Transkei, Mandela discovered that his guardian had arranged a marriage for him. He fled towards Johannesburg, where he obtained work as a night-watchman on a gold mine. Nelson Mandela moved into a house in Alexandra, a Black suburb of Johannesburg, with his mother. Here he met Walter Sisulu and Walters fiancà ©e Albertina. Mandela started working as a clerk in a law firm, studying in the evening through a correspondence course with the University of South Africa (now UNISA) to complete his first degree. He was awarded his Bachelors degree in 1941, and in 1942 he was articled to another firm of attorneys and started upon a law degree at the University of Witwatersrand. Here he worked with a study partner, Seretse Khama, who would later become the first president of an independent Botswana. In 1944 Nelson Mandela married Evelyn Mase, a cousin of Walter Sisulu. He also began his political career in earnest, joining the African National Congress, ANC. Finding the existing leadership of the ANC to be a dying order of pseudo-liberalism and conservatism, of appeasement and compromise., Mandela, along with Tambo, Sisulu, and a few others formed the African National Congress Youth League, ANCYL. In 1947 Mandela was elected as secretary of the ANCYL, and became a member of the Transvaal ANC executive. By 1948 Nelson Mandela had failed to pass the exams required for his LLB law degree, and he decided instead to settle for the qualifying exam which would allow him to practice as an attorney. When DF Malans Herenigde Nationale Party (HNP, Re-united National Party) won the 1948 election, Mandela, Tambo, and Sisulu acted. The existing ANC president was pushed out of office and someone more amenable to the ideals of the ANCYL was brought in as a replacement. Walter Sisulu proposed a programme of action, which was subsequently adopted by the ANC. Mandela was made president of the Youth League in 1951. Nelson Mandela opened his law office in 1952, and a few months later teamed up with Tambo to create the first Black legal practice in South Africa. It was difficult for both Mandela and Tambo to find time for both their legal practice and their political aspirations. That year Mandela became president of the Transvaal ANC, but was banned under the Suppression of Communism Act – he was prohibited from holding office within the ANC, banned from attending ANY meetings, and restricted to the district around Johannesburg. Fearing for the future of the ANC, Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo initiated the M-plan (M for Mandela). The ANC would be broken down into cells so that it could continue to operate, if necessary, underground. Under the banning order, Mandela was restricted from attending meeting, but he drove down to Kliptown in June 1955 to be part of the Congress of the People; and by keeping to the shadows and the periphery of the crowd, Mandela watched as the Freedom Charter was adopted by all the groups involved. His increasing involvement in the anti-Apartheid struggle, however, caused problems for his marriage and in December that year Evelyn left him, citing irreconcilable differences. On 5 December 1956, in response to the adoption of the Freedom Charter at the Congress of the People, the Apartheid government in South Africa arrested a total 156 people, including Chief Albert Luthuli (president of the ANC) and Nelson Mandela. This was almost the entire executive of the African National Congress (ANC), Congress of Democrats, South African Indian Congress, Coloured Peoples Congress, and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (collectively known as the Congress Alliance). They were charged with high treason and a countrywide conspiracy to use violence to overthrow the present government and replace it with a communist state. The punishment for high treason was death. The Treason Trial dragged on, until Mandela and his 29 remaining co-accused were finally acquitted in March 1961. During the Treason Trial Nelson Mandela met and married his second wife, Nomzamo Winnie Madikizela. The 1955 Congress of the People and its moderate stance against the policies of the Apartheid government eventually led to the younger, more radical members of the ANC to break away: the Pan Africanist Congress, PAC, was formed in 1959 under the leadership of Robert Sobukwe. The ANC and PAC became instant rivals, especially in the townships. This rivalry came to a head when the PAC rushed ahead of ANC plans to hold mass protests against the pass laws. On 21 March 1960 at least 180 black Africans were injured and 69 killed when the South African police opened fire on approximately demonstrators at Sharpeville. Both the ANC and PAC responded in 1961 by setting up military wings. Nelson Mandela, in what was a radical departure from ANC policy, was instrumental in creating the ANC group: Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation, MK), and Mandela became the MKs first commander. Both the ANC and PAC were banned by the South African government under the Unlawful Organisations Act in 1961. The MK, and the PACs Poqo, responded by commencing with campaigns of sabotage. In 1962 Nelson Mandela was smuggled out of South Africa. He first attended and addressed the conference of African nationalist leaders, the Pan-African Freedom Movement, in Addis Ababa. From there he went to Algeria to undergo guerrilla training, and then flew to London to catch up with Oliver Tambo (and also to meet members of the British parliamentary opposition). On his return to South Africa, Mandela was arrested and sentenced to five years for incitement and illegally leaving the country. On 11 July 1963 a raid was undertaken on Lilieslief farm in Rivonia, near Johannesburg, which was being used by the MK as headquarters. The remaining leadership of the MK was arrested. Nelson Mandela was included at trial with those arrested at Lilieslief and charged with over 200 counts of sabotage, preparing for guerrilla warfare in SA, and for preparing an armed invasion of SA. Mandela was one of five (out of the ten defendants) at the Rivonia Trail to be given life sentences and sent to Robben Island. Two more were released, and the remaining three escaped custody and were smuggled out of the country. At the end of his four hour statement to the court Nelson Mandela stated: During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. These words are said to sum up the guiding principles by which he worked for liberation of South Africa. In 1976 Nelson Mandela was approached with an offer by Jimmy Kruger, the Minister for Police serving under President BJ Vorster, to renounce the struggle and settle in the Transkei. Mandela refused. By 1982 international pressure against the South African government to release Nelson Mandela and his compatriots was growing. The then South African president, PW Botha, arranged for Mandela and Sisulu to be transferred back to the mainland to Pollsmoor Prison, near Cape Town. In August 1985, approximately a month after the South African government declares a state of emergency, Mandela was taken to hospital for an enlarged prostate gland. On his return to Pollsmoor he was placed in solitary confinement (having a whole section of the jail to himself). In 1986 Nelson Mandela was taken to see the Minister of Justice, Kobie Coetzee, who requested once again that he renounce violence in order to win his freedom. Despite refusing, restrictions on Mandela were somewhat lifted: he was allowed visits from his family, and was even driven around Cape Town by the prison warder. In May 1988 Mandela was diagnosed with tuberculosis and moved to Tygerberg hospital for treatment. On release from hospital he was moved to secure quarters at Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. By 1989 things were looking bleak for the Apartheid regime: PW Botha had a stroke, and shortly after entertaining Mandela at the Tuynhuys, the presidential residence in Cape Town, he resigned. FW de Klerk was appointed as his successor. Mandela met with De Klerk in December 1989, and the following year at the opening of parliament (2 February) De Klerk announced the unbanning of all political parties and the release of political prisoners (except those guilty of violent crimes). On 11 February 1990 Nelson Mandela was finally released. By 1991 the Convention for a Democratic South Africa, CODESA, was set up to negotiate constitutional change in South Africa. Both Mandela and De Klerk were key figures in the negotiations, and their efforts were jointly awarded in December 1993 with the Nobel Peace Prize. When South Africas first multi-racial elections were held in April 1994, the ANC won a 62% majority. (Mandela revealed later that he was worried that it would achieve the 67% majority that would allow it to re-write the constitution.) A Government of National Unity, GNU, was formed – based on an idea proffered by Joe Slovo, the GNU could last for up to five years as a new constitution was drawn up. It was hoped that this would allay the fears of South Africas whites population suddenly faced with majority Black rule. On 10 May 1994 Nelson Mandela made his inaugural presidential speech from the Union Building, Pretoria: We have at last, achieved our political emancipation. we pledge ourselves to liberate all our people from the continuing bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender, and other discrimination. Never, never, and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression of one by another... Let freedom reign. God Bless Africa! Shortly after he published his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom. In 1997 Nelson Mandela stepped down as leader of the ANC in favour of Thabo Mbeki, and in 1999 he relinquished the post of president. Despite claims to have retired, Mandela continues to have a busy life. He was divorced from Winnie Madikizela-Mandela in 1996, the same year that the press realised he was having a relationship with Graà §a Machel, the widow of Mozambiques former president. After heavy prompting by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nelson Mandela and Graà §a Machel were married on his eightieth birthday, 18 July 1998. This article first went live on 15 August 2004.

The Changes Of The World s Civilizations - 1101 Words

Several countries and cultures throughout history rise while others fall. Some countries invade while others are invaded. Numerous factors come into play when reviewing the history and the changes of the world’s civilizations. A prime example of a territory constantly invaded by empires until finally becoming its own country is Syria. Though Syria has faced many trials throughout its past, it faces several in the present. Syrian culture, economics, politics, and military advances have been contributions to its military conflicts and Civil War. For centuries Syria has been fought over by empires, primarily for its geographical location. Syria is located on the borders of Turkey, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and the†¦show more content†¦Many of the citizens of Syria have different cultures and religions, but the majority of the country is Sunni Muslim. â€Å"Only during the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. was it the center of an empire. But that relatively short period left Syria with its Islamic heritage† (Polk, 2013). â€Å"Syrians tend to identify primarily with their religious group or sect; however, as the majority of the country is Sunni Muslim, this creates a strong feeling of cultural unity† (Polk, 2013). Though they have a strong cultural unity, as well as any other country, Syria has different wealth classes throughout the country, and in which the different classes do not socialize with one another. Syria’s a predominately Muslim country, the men do not socialize with the women and marriages are arranged by the families. In return, socializing is constructed with similar labor and families. Among the different jobs and employment in Syria, the biggest economic value to the Syrians are their agriculture and oil exports. Though Syrian oil is not the cleanest of the Middle East regions, Syria still relies heavily on their ability to sell to other countries, the United States not being one of them. Both Syria and the United States are part of the United Nations,

Climate Change And Sociology Global Warming - 1253 Words

Climate Change and Sociology Danielle Cluphf College of Western Idaho Climate Change and Sociology Climate change known as global warming has been steadily increasing over time. Global warming is a catch phrase of social confusion. Society feels uncomfortable with this notion. Is it real or fake? Little do people know that human progression and population growth adds to carbon emissions in the atmosphere. The term greenhouse gasses mean H2o or water, Co2 or carbon dioxide, and N20 known as nitrous oxide. In the book titled Global Climate Change, it breaks down what global warming is and relays information about carbon dioxide being the primary cause to the negative amounts of greenhouse gasses. â€Å"Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse†¦show more content†¦J, et al 2010) In my research, environmental sociologists use the â€Å"lens† of conflict theory, and functionalism. Today, most of the popular sociologists look at the environment from the conflict theory perspective so I will focus on this theory. In the book titled You May Ask Yourself, Conley talks ab out what conflict theory is. â€Å"The idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general. (Conley 2015) Conflict theorists look at the inequality perspective of societal problems and they can be from poverty, race, or gender etc. An important area of focus among environmental sociologists is the relationship between inequality and the environment. In the article, All About Environmental Sociology, Dr. Cole talks about how environmental sociologists use conflict theory with inequalities in society like income, race, gender and how climate change negatively affects these people. Low-income people for instance have more of a chance to live in a worse area that may be subject to more environmental hazards. 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My Roots of Fear Essay Example For Students

My Roots of Fear Essay Is fear something bad? Do you think that you’ll look weak to people if you are afraid of something? Well, my own opinion is that’s not true at all: I believe fear is not something evil; it only tells us what our weaknesses and/or insecurities are. And once you know your weakness, you can become stronger as well as kinder. Humans are human because of the capacity of realizing their fears, and so I did. My life has been a roller coaster since I born, so the word â€Å"fear† is one of the words in the top of it – slowing down while it goes to the top until it just goes down flashing over the rails. Different experiences in my life had been a total source of understanding my own meaning of fear. Experience 1: Insecurities, jitters, and panic are some ingredients that often lead people to cook their fears of something, and those ingredients are often found when people get lost and cannot find anyone. When I was little – I suppose when I was around 7 years old – I got lost in the middle of a beach, around night time. I couldn’t help it but to get scared. People walking near me made me feel very unease. But then I realized I was not alone; I was with my loyal dog Pelusa – he would be named Fluff in English. Even if it was impossible for me, I think he was telling me to not be afraid and do not give up hope. So then, I stop feeling lost and hopeless and started to look for my parents with him by my side. Of course, after a while, we could find them and go back home with them. However, I knew then that I could never forget that time, because it was where I knew my own weakness – A weakness of being lost and feeling alone all by myself. But, even when I felt this way, it wasn’t something that bad so I would just give up hopes. This is what Pelusa made me believe in, and I’m grateful for it. Experience 2: New schools in new different countries is a very difficult test for a child like me, who doesn’t want to have a big zero in her â€Å"new friends† grade. So, when a new â€Å"adventure† began in a whole new world, I’ve been always on my own. When people ask me if I’m lonely, I obviously say no. But back then, I would always start crying or sobbing alone somewhere else because I knew I was lonely, and that there was nothing I could do for me not to be it anymore. I was terrified by only thinking of being alone all along in this new environment. Even when I grow up, my loneliness takes over my body and tries to pull me down in the abyss of my fears. I had no idea what to do, or what to think about. But then I realized, that even if my loneliness pulls me down, I still had people who will pull me up again every time I feel like falling. After some days or weeks, I could start talking to other people and make new friends at school. I finally started to stop being afraid, and could find my spot in this new world I came to. Now, I still change of school after some times, but I am not afraid anymore, because I understand that it is not something that only happens to me, but to everyone who have the same experience as me, and decided to stand up. Fears should be avoided, but accepted so you could move a step further. My own fears taught me that: they are nor bad nor evil, but it only depends on how people see them in a situation, whom usually look at them as a bad thing. It probably sounds different from what you’ve heard, but this is my belief basing myself in this experience. .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .postImageUrl , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:hover , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:visited , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:active { border:0!important; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:active , .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383 .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc83383ef6b9f7987290aa8ee61b38383:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Breast Cancer EssayExperience 3: My friend was only 10 years old when her â€Å"change† happened. She was kidnapped in Mexico when, in the city of Juarez, young girls were token away from their families and suffer the greatest of the despairs that they could have in their lives. After this happens, I’ve heard a good news that she was found two years after her kidnapping; they might have been so happy and relieved when they did. I also heard, that when she was found, she changed a little. Not in a bad way, but in a really good way. I was curious, so on day I called her. First of all, I asked her how her experience was at those moments while she was kidnapped. She only told me that all she saw was darkness, tears, and fear spreading all over the place. So I asked her if she still was afraid of going out of the house, fearing of being taken away again. She kept quite a little bit; it was a moment like those seconds that can be felt like hours. After a while, she answered that she obviously was, but she couldn’t just forget about it either. She said that if she hadn’t been taken way, she couldn’t find out that her own fears, and she wouldn’t have the chance to enjoy life again. That she wouldn’t let that stop her of moving on in life, so she did not mind about it and was enjoying life even more than before. I was surprised that after all that she could said that. From that moment, I took her experience as an example of life to look up to. So brave, so full of hopes, so gentle She made me believe that being afraid was something essential in life, like pain or regrets. Now, I’m proud of saying that I believe that we must move forward and reach for what we want, especially when we are afraid. Otherwise, we stand still, we become lazy, we atrophy, and we miss all the wonderful terror of this world. Therefore, I believe fears are essential in life. Human who think they can get rid of it easily haven’t grown or learned enough. If we’re ever afraid, we just have to take action, stand up and move on. We humans have two legs for it, so we can stand and walk. Maybe we can’t help it being scared all alone. There are people who don’t even have their own legs to walk on. However, it is all fine, because they still have people around them who help them to stand up as well. We all have got people who we love and love us close by as well. So, there’s nothing to be afraid of, because we are not alone after all